Cultural Heritage II

The Reformation

The Reformation (c.1500-1650)

Problem of Polarization

Were the differences between Catholicism and Protestantism really irreconcilable? What could have been done by either side? Discussion?

Why did it happen when and where it did? What made Luther “Luther”?

Religion: Indulgences and Tetzel, Bible vs. Tradition and Authority, Personal access to the Bible vs. Mediation, Faith vs. Works, Brethren of Common Life vs. Hierarchical Priesthood.

Geographic: Remote and Rural Locations; Are agricultural communities more pious and populist than city-dwellers? There were also fewer real material interests in common between Rome and Germany.

Economic: Growing class of trades people (such as ML’s father) with some money and education who resent being abused by badly-educated and obviously immoral priests. Desire by German princes to retain taxes sent to Rome, and to confiscate Church lands (for themselves and as payment to loyal nobles).

Technological/Scientific: Printing Press (Gutenberg, about 1450), plus better trade roads, lead to rapid circulation of texts people want to read. Emerging suspicion that Church was not the authority on the Natural World (and had, in fact, concealed truth).

Political: Excessive and no longer warranted use of centralized power by Rome (Excommunication of Luther, 1520; Diet of Words, 1521); German princes like Frederick of Saxony wanted more sovereignty in their own lands. Emerging nationalism: Being German starts to mean more than being Catholic. Remember the slide on the breakdown and emergence of “imagined communities”?

Artistic and Literary: Humanism (via Erasmus), also see Albrecht Durer’s Self Portrait (1500)—individualism and piety. To Germans, Italy seemed decadent and worldly (remember Botticelli?); perhaps envy of grandeur of Italian cities paid for by taxes on “Germans”? Note the Protestant opposition to art in their churches, and sacking of Catholic churches in Protestant Europe. Northern European austerity vs. Southern European baroque style (also recall Hamlet’s pessimism about the fleeting rewards of humanism.)

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

95 Theses (1517), Wittenberg

As “Archetypal Hero” of Emerging Modern Culture: Individualism, Freedom of Conscience, the Little Man Against the Corrupt System, Launching the Liberal Tradition.

Why do we create heroes? What are some problems with heroes? Discussion?

Further Complicating Luther

The Peasants’ War (1524-25) and the Radical Reformation

“The Twelve Articles” (looks ahead to democracy and socialism)

“Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants” (1525)

Discussion?: Principles vs. Opportunity? Does Luther have integrity or would he agree with Machiavelli on some points? Does any of this change your view of Luther? And of “great men” in general? How can Luther’s integrity be maintained?

The Counter-Reformation (c. 1530s-)

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Purge Corruption (esp. Indulgences, Celibacy)

Clarify Doctrine (Seven Sacraments, Faith and Works, Church Authority and Scripture, Saints, Icons, Relics, Virgin Mary, Transubstantiation)

Improve Education of Priests

Found the Jesuits (“Society of Jesus,” 1534-)

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises

Sponsor Mystical Sects such as the Carmelites

Teresa of Avila (1515-1582)

Bernini’s Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1652)

Send missionaries to the New World and Far East.

Patronize Baroque architecture, art, and music.

Saint Peter’s Basilica

Bernini, El Greco, Rubens, Bach

The Index of Forbidden Books (1557-1966)

The Inquisition (Mostly in Spain, ends around 1730; Heresy/Heretics)

Wars of Religion (1559-1648), millions killed by war, disease, and starvation.

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (Catholics kill Huguenots, Paris, 1572)

Thirty Years War (1618-1648) ends with Peace of Westphalia (1648) and right of princes to choose the faith of their dominions.

Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466-1536): Dutch, Priest’s son, Renaissance Humanist; Brethren of the Common Life; “Laid the Egg that Luther Hatched”; Remained Catholic but saw need for reforms, reacted against Luther’s support for violence.

The Praise of Folly (1511) and “Cyclops, or the Gospel Bearer” (1529)

Violence and Christianity are Incompatible

Against Scholasticism (for Common Sense)

Back to the Sources (origins of the Bible in other languages)

Universal Education (literacy, Bible for everyone)

Toleration (for ecumenical Christianity)

Moderation (against polarization)

Wit (humor deflects anger)

Witchcraft Persecutions

A Mass Hysteria, Scapegoating, 100,000 executed (1560-1640) by Protestants and Catholics.

Folk Religion in Remote Agricultural Communities

Malleus Malificarum

Salem, Massachusetts, 1692 (see The Crucible by Arthur Miller)

The Social Fragmentation Thesis

Discussion?: Has the witch-craze pattern been repeated at other moments in history?

BIG-PICTURE DISCUSSION QUESTION?: What was gained for European civilization by the Reformation? What was lost? Was the Reformation an instance of “progress”? What was the nature of the progress?